Hormesis?

For your reading pleasure, I'm gong to summarize the summary of radiation-based hormesis hypothesis from the very reliable scholarly source, Wikipedia.

First, what is it? You probably already know this, based on the audience for this blog. But let me explain anyhow: hormesis is a word used to describe the positive biological reaction to a typically negative outside influence, in small enough doses (toxins, radiation, etc).

You could think of hormesis as exercising your cells by introducing them to a small contingent of "bad guy" things, letting them know there is a risk and pushing them to be ready for it.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormesis

For radiation, the claim is difficult to study due to the random nature of radiation damage, difficulty in linking radiation doses to the already high base-line cancer risk, inability to perform controlled human experiments, and large errors. Because of this, little actual credit is given to the theory, and radiation protection models ignore the potential benefit of small doses in favor of assuming all radiation doses are bad.

However, there are some compelling arguments for why hormesis would apply to radiation damage, for example, this list of effects seen in small radiation doses:

• Mechanisms that mitigate reactive oxygen species generated by ionizing radiation and oxidative stress.

• Apoptosis of radiation damaged cells that may undergo tumorigenesis is initiated at only few mSv.

• Cell death during meiosis of radiation damaged cells that were unsuccessfully repaired.

• The existence of a cellular signaling system that alerts neighboring cells of cellular damage.

• The activation of enzymatic DNA repair mechanisms around 10 mSv.

• Modern DNA microarray studies which show that numerous genes are activated at radiation doses well below the level that mutagenesis is detected.

• Radiation-induced tumorigenesis may have a threshold related to damage density, as revealed by experiments that employ blocking grids to thinly distribute radiation.

• A large increase in tumours in immunosuppressed individuals illustrates that the immune system efficiently destroys aberrant cells and nascent tumors.

- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation_hormesis

Additionally, there has been studies done on humans in areas of naturally high background radiation (Kerala, India) which show no evidence of increases cancer risk. Studies on animals show some correlation between induced radiation and cancer resilience.

So, in summary, it's probably not a great idea to go out looking to be irradiated, but you shouldn't worry too much about the background radiation you receive, or even an extra dose or two. Turns out your body wants to live, and has methods to help keep itself alive.

Dirty Water

Radiation is everywhere. In our bananas, in our brazil nuts, in our sun, almost like it's a normal and prevalent force of nature. So it won't come as a surprise to learn that water from the earth can also be radioactive.

Now, typically when one talks about radioactive water, they mean primarily water carrying particles that are radioactive. Water molecules (H2O) aren't normally radioactive unless activated (hit by a lot of radiation), in which case the worst isotope you'd see is tritium. Unfortunately, there isn't a whole lot you can do about tritium beyond not drinking any of that sweet, delicious water or water-based beverages (basically everything).

So, we'll talk more about radioactive particles in water. There are lots of potential contaminants in water, and radioactive things can fall into that category. In water supplies, most often the concern is radon. Radon is a byproduct of uranium decay, which occurs naturally (due to the presence of natural uranium depostis).

Additionally, if you're unfortunate enough to need water in an area that has had some sort of radioactive fallout, all of the particulates will be floating around in the water (as well as in the air, but y'know, assume it's settled and you're cool). Now, drinking radioactive particles isn't the best thing for your health, don't be lead astray by those hormesis acolytes.

So, what do you do? You filter the damn water. The best you can, get rid of as many radioactive tidbits as possible. How? Carbon filtering is typically easily accessible, this is what your BRITA (tm) filter uses. If you can't get to your local Wal-Mart for some activated charcol, or just really want to do it Les Stroud style, you'll want to look into making a soil filter, or solar distilling rig. Of course, there are better ways, such as reverse-osmosis and other fancy water cleaning systems. The more effective a method is of removing stuff from water, the less radiation you'll get.

Cosmic Radiation

Every day that we walk around on earth, we are being continuously blasted by cosmic radiation. So says Carl Sagan, so must it be. But lets talk about it, learn some things about the how why and when, and see if we can gleam some small knowledge about the impinging radiation,

The first and most obvious source of radiation from the heavens is our sun, the massive ball of burning energy that blasts us constantly, both providing the essential energy for all life on earth and the means of achieving a sweet tan.

http://www.universetoday.com/60065/radiation-from-the-sun/

The sunlight we receive when the earth turns to face a new day is the radiation that the sun gives off. We get a huge amount and variety of radiation due to the grace of our resident star, which emits vast amounts of high energy photons (packets of energy with no mass that act as waves), that reach earth in the form infrared through UV light. It is this energy that warms the atmosphere and sustains all life in our solar system.

Another form of cosmic radiation comes in the form of neutrinos, a neutral subatomic particle with a mass on the order of millionth of an electrons. Because of their neutrality and extremely low mass, they rarely interact with anything, allowing them to travel extreme distances very quickly (very close to, if not at, the speed of light). They are the result of certain nuclear reactions, such as those in the sun.

"About 65 billion (6.5×10¹⁰) solar neutrinos per second pass through every square centimeter perpendicular to the direction of the Sun in the region of the Earth."

-Wikipedia

Besides the sun, neutrinos may be formed in distant supernova or close to home, in nuclear reactors, or through the natural decay of elements such as uranium. In fact, it is theorized that a massive quantities of very cold (close to absolute zero) neutrinos from the very beginning of the universe surrounds us, which carries the name "cosmic neutrino background". 

Closely related to this is "cosmic microwave background", which is energy that was left over after the formation of the universe. This background radiation is partly responsible for the static that appears on a television which operates over antenna. It's existence is touted as evidence for the Big Bang model of the creation of the universe.

Another form of radiation that we know little about is the relatively rare  "ultra-high-energy cosmic ray", which is radiation which has been detected at energies of above 1E18 eV, much above typical emissions. A particularly amusing example is the "Oh-My-God particle", a 3E20 (3E8 Tera Electronvolts) particle detected by the University of Utah in 1991. The source of these incredibly energetic particles is still up for debate, but it is argued that they must be the results of recent cosmic events, as energy is quickly shed while travelling in space.

Thanks for reading this abstraction, may you live long and prosper.

Nuclear Winter

Nuclear winter is a hypothetical event, the result of a large number of massive wildfires that spout soot into the atmosphere.With enough soot, the sun would be effectively blocked out, causing a worldwide winter.

The term "nuclear winter" came about because when it was first conceptualized, the idea was linked with the amount of soot generated in a nuclear explosion. Simulations suggested that one hundred megatons of nuclear payload, detonated over major urban areas, would bring about a minor version of the above scenario. Further  detonations would worsen the situation, eventually leading to the irrecoverable nuclear winter scenario [1]. The term became irrevocably tied to nuclear weaponry in modern vernacular over the years, as the idea stuck with people.

However, nuclear warfare isn't the only (or even most likely) cause of nuclear winter. Hypothetically, any event that causes massive amounts of materials to be injected into the atmosphere would contribute to a nuclear winter scenario. For example, volcanic eruptions, a meteor strike or simply enough large-scale firestorms worldwide could have a similar effect. 

Ironically, the nuclear winter effect has been suggested as a a potential method to reduce global warming through injection of sulfur compounds into the atmosphere, enough to bring temperatures down slightly [2]

[1] http://people.oregonstate.edu/~schmita2/Teaching/ATS421-521/2015/papers/turco83sci.pdf 

[2] http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10584-006-9101-y?LI=true#page-1

Safety in Nuclear

To begin, we'll invoke the names of the biggest accidents in the history of nuclear power. Chernobyl, Three Mile Island, and Fukushima, each will ring a certain bell most heads. For many, they pull to mind nuclear meltdown and death. Apocalyptic images. What else is that a nuclear accident involves invisible radiation which promises increased cancer risk, potentially for miles around. 

What's more is the association with one of the most feared weapons in all of the world, the atomic bomb. It is no wonder that the common man doesn't like the idea, and makes it clear. Nuclear power is abided, in the best of terms. In fact, the accident at Three Mile Island in 1979 caused a complete stop on all new plant construction. Only recently, in 2012, have steps begun towards new construction.

With all this scrutiny and fear involving nuclear power plants, the industry had to evolve. Today, huge emphasis is placed on the safety of our nuclear plants. Every accident that occurs is mined for as much information as possible, in order to enhance future safety. There are strict regulations in place, governed by he Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), such as the requirement not only for redundant (multiple) but also diverse (different) components for vital functions. I won't bore you with the details, but the number of regulations for nuclear are intense and in-depth, google 10CFR20 to get a taste.

And it shows. Because of the strict adherence to safety, nuclear plants tend to do well and not need to be shut down very frequently, beyond refueling. Because of this, their capacity factor (percent of the theoretical possible power) is very high.

Of course, part of the large capacity factor is that nuclear plants are base-load, meaning they don't normally turn off, while plants like natural gas or coal might shut on or off as demand increases or decreases. Still, an average of 90% capacity factor is impressive.

Radiation and Biology

Continuing our discussion on cancer, today we will look at the effects of radiation, why it causes and how it can treat cancer.

Interaction Mechanism
Broadly speaking, there are two categories of radiation: "ionizing" and "non-ionizing" radiation. Ionizing means the radiation is energetic enough that when it comes into contact with an atom, it can remove an electron from it, thereby ionizing it (giving it a charge). Ionizing radiation can also break chemical bonds, or even damage the nucleus of an atom with enough energy.

http://www.arpansa.gov.au/radiationprotection/basics/ion_nonion.cfm

In terms of biology, ionizing radiation entering a cell may cause harm directly, by smashing into or being absorbed by "macromolecules", e.g. DNA strands, proteins, enzymes.. Damage may also be caused indirectly, through interactions with water creating "free radicals" (ionized atoms) that can go on to damage the macro-molecules [1]. 

Radiation Treatment of Cancer

So, why is it we use radiation to treat cancer, if it is also a cause of cancer? The answer is primarily that we have no better way, in many cases. Some cancers may be inaccessible to surgeons, or the patient may not be in healthy enough to withstand a surgery.

And how does it work? The same way that radiation damages healthy cells, it can also damaged cancerous cells. The same mechanisms (direct and indirect damage) still apply, and the idea is simply to focus as much radiation on the tumor as possible for a long enough time to destroy all the cells causing the cancerous tumor.

Unfortunately, while we have methodologies to make the maximum energy (radiation damage) be deposited in the tumor site, the radiation must also damage healthy cells in its path. This may cause a sunburn-like reddening of the skin at the entrance and exit of the radiation area, or, if the treatment is intensive enough, overall radiation sickness may occur. Radiation sickness is what many picture when they think of radiation treatment, and involves fatigue, nausea, hair loss and other symptoms.

Additionally, there is always a random (stochastic) chance that the healthy cells damaged along the way to healing the cancerous tumor may also eventually develop into cancerous cells themselves. 

[1] http://www.ehs.msu.edu/radiation/programs_guidelines/radmanual/14rm_bioeffects.htm

Unstable Cellular Division

Cancer, the scary illness that ranks as one of the highest lifetakers worldwide. This post will provide an overview of the disease, and future posts will discuss the mechanism of radiation in relation to it.

What is it?
Cancer can occur when normal cells in your body become damaged. A healthy cell carries instructions on how to replicate itself, and when these instructions become corrupted in a certain way, the cell can begin to replicate itself indefinitely. This unstable growth causes a tumor to form. Because the tumor is made of cells typical of your body, your immune system has a hard time identifying and defending against them.

Not all of these tumors are considered cancerous. Some cells reproduce very slowly, or are in locations where they cannot spread to the rest of your body, and are thus considered benign. The most dangerous forms of cancer are those that effect cells which reproduce themselves very quickly (eg bone marrow) and can spread easily (through your blood or lymph system).

What causes it?
There are many causes of cancer, making it very difficult to predict. One example, smoking tobacco is well known as a cause of cancer. This is because tobacco contains many "carcinogens", which are substances known to cause damage to cells. Carcinogens may be chemicals that bind to DNA, radioactive elements, or some substance that has the capability of causing physical damage to a cell. Tobacco is known to carry both chemical carcinogens as well as small amounts of polonium 210, a radioactive element.

Other factors in cancer risk include solar and other natural radiations, diet, and certain viruses. However, there is no guarantee of cancer from any source. This is because damage to a cell causing cancer must effect a very particular part of the DNA, specifically that involving cellular reproduction, in a very particular way. So, while damage to your cells may be very common, the chance of cancer is effectively random. In science, the fancy term for this is "stochastic".

The Enormity of Everything

"Our imagination is stretched to the utmost, not, as in fiction, to imagine things which are not really there, but just to comprehend those things which 'are' there."

- Dr. Richard Feynman

The world in which we live is vast, incredibly huge and dense with information of innumerable kinds. No matter which way one's gaze turns, there is an overwhelming amount of depth to discover. For example, one could spend countless hours studying the movement of glaciers, the habits of different ant colonies, or the composition of a particular patch of earth (perhaps with respect to fungi, or to minerals, or to foliage) and yet, never scratch the surface. 

With such a breadth of knowledge, what is an individual to do? It seems impossible to master one subject in a lifetime, let alone to attain an understanding of all related mechanisms in nature. But, the individual is not alone. As of 2016 the estimated world population stands at 7.4 billion people. Many know this number, but perhaps do not realize its full implication. Not, to say, that there are no connotations associated with the number, but more that we do not fully understand the magnitude. A billion is a thousand million, 1 x 10^9, a one with nine trailing zeroes, all of these give definition to the word but not an implicit understanding. 

Our minds have a hard time with numbers like "a billion" because we see things in proportion to our own lives. We can intuitively grasp tens, hundreds, thousands and even tens of thousands because it's likely we've seen groupings of objects reach those numbers, and thus have some reference. But past a point, our mind switches to "lots" and "more than lots". We can impress that a number is large by alluding to grains of sand on a beach, stars in the sky, or people on earth, but the intuitive understanding is mostly gone, replaced by a comparison of one large amount to another.

Yet, the impact of our population is easily seen, as our species has gained and cataloged incredible amounts of information, built generation upon generation, so that the contribution of an individual might be small but the sum giant. A great example of this lies in the field of atomic physics. Through the imagination of Neils Bohr, Einstein, Rutherford, Heisenberg and many others, an understanding of some of the mechanisms of the atomic particles came to light. Now, less than a hundred years from their great contributions, we can harvest the fission of heavy nuclei for energy.

Indeed, in the atomic field also lies another example of the indescribable enormity of our universe, as we now have an idea that material is composed of atoms. As an example, a single milliliter (a cubic centimeter) of water at standard temperature and pressure contains roughly 6.68 x 10^22 atoms of hydrogen. That's more than the entire human population of earth multiplied by itself. That is to say, if we had an entire population of earth for every human currently in existence, we would still number less than the atoms of hydrogen in a milliliter of water. Incredible.

Of course, the vastness of our cosmos also expresses itself in the variety of life, the massive expanse of our galaxy and the shear number of estimated galaxies. All of this is to call attention to the depth that surrounds us. What to make of it is left to the reader, whom assuredly has mused on similar tangents.